Dr.R.Nagaswamy #4682B4 The position of women in Tamil Nadu in the post Cankam age, is a fascinating field of enquiry for those interested in the study of society. While literature furnishes the idealised state, our inscriptions, most of which are legal documents, depict the actual condition that prevailed, and as such, this paper is mainly based on them. The position of women is also assessed from their proprietary rights and independence in various capacities. This paper covering a period of about 1500 years, would focus attention on women's right to: a) own and alienate property b) sign documents and deeds c) have administrative units functioning directly under them d) exercise their individual rights by issuing commands or orders in their own names even while their husbands are alive e) participate in public auctins f) serve as administrative officers in the government g) transact through guardians h) share equal rights with their husbands i) equality in marriage j) equality in slavery k) and a few other related matters. Care is also taken to see that the study is not confined to any section of the society, but reflects the true nature by cutting across caste, social or economic barries. Own and alienate property Two inscriptions in Tamil language in Tamil Brahmi characters assignable to the first century A. D., coming from Aranattarmalai in Pukalur, record gifts by two sisters, to the Jain abode on the hill. The gifts were made by the women Korri and Nori daughters of Pittan of Nalliyur. The two records are among many other gifts made by donors including that of a Cera crown prince, a gold merchant and others. It indicates that women had rights to own wealth,and make gifts, which were given equal importance in public records from the beginning of Common Era. (1) A Pallava queen, Carudevi, gifted land to the temple of Pakavan Narayana of Kuli Maktaraka devakulam for her prosperity, long life and health, "ammake ayurpala vattaniyam". The queen was the consort of Yuvamharaja Buddhavarman and the mother of Buddhiyankura. "Yuvamaharajassa Bharadvayassa Pallavanam Sri Vijaya Buddhavammassa devi, Buddhankura Janani Carudevi, ammahe Sampadatta". From other records it is known that Pallava Yuvamaharaja was alive, when the queen made this gift. The gift recorded in a copper plate inscription is assigned to the early 4th Cent.CE. Rangapataka, a famous queen of the Pallava ruler, Rajasimha, 700 CE, built a temple of Siva in front of Rajasimhesvara temple (Kailasanatha temple) Kanci, where her gift is recorded The cave temple at Tirupparankunram, near Madurai now famous for its Subrahmanya shrine, but originally dedicated to Siva, Visnu, and other deities was renovated by Sattan Ganapati, a commander, Mahasamanta, of the Pandya ruler, Maran Cadayan Varaguna I (circa 770 CE.) Nakkan Korri, the wife of Samanta Ganapati (mentioned as) "dharma pattini" in the record), added two more shrines, one dedicated to Jyestha and the other to Durga. (2) In this instance both the husband and wife are given equal importance in the gift(dharma). Similar gifts made by woman, directly to religious institutions are found in considerable number. Viramahadevi, a queen of Pallava ruler Nrpatunga, 9th Cent. gifted gold to the temple of Tirukkodikka, from the gold obtained from Hiranya-garbha and Tula-bhara ceremonies performed by her. From the tenor of the inscription, it is seen that the two ceremonies were performed by the queen. (3) The inscription reads "Nirupatunga maharayar deviyar Viramahadeviyar, Hiraniyagarbhamum Tulabharamum Pukka Ponnill". Madevatika, a queen of Pallava ruler, Aparajita gifted gold to the Siva temple at Tiruvorriyur in 9th Cent. A. D. Kilvan Tecappukai, a queen of the Pantiya ruler Manaparan (10th Cent. A. D.) gifted gold for burning a perpetual lamp in the Tillaittanam temple. (5) Mullur Nangai,the mother-in-law of the Cola emperor, Parantaka (910 A. D.), who is called the mother of Colamadevai, the queen of Parakesarivarman, is seen gifting gold to the temple at Tiruppunturutti, in Tanjore district. (6) The several gifts made by the illustrious Cola queen Sembiyan Mahadevi, are recorded in many temples. The queen made provision to the temple of Koyir devarayanpettai, for performing 1008 Kalasa snapana (abhiseka) for the well beiong of her son, the Emeperor Uttamachola. She is described as the mother of the ruler. (7) A gift is recorded by a woman singer, Battalaki, belonging to the Periya Velam (the great harem), in the reign of Cola ruler, Parantaka I in 908 CE. (8) During the 10th year of the same ruler 915 CE.) a dancing girl Pirtimahadevi also called Mummuticola Talaikkoli, made provisions for a perpetual lamp. (9) A servant maid, Madevan Kanti (Velatu Pentatti) belonging to the harem of Karralip-piratti (a Cola queen) of Tanjore, gifted provisions for water ablutions to Lord Siva of the temple at Kumbakonam. (10) A servant of the kitchen, "atukkalai pentu", named Raja Vidyadhari, laid out a processional street and festive-grove for the same god (in 11th Cent. (11) A servant woman (Tati) of the Chola Emperor Parantaka Cola I, (10th Cent.) whoe name is given as Pantan Kali gifted land to a temple. (12) Joint Ownership Even as early as the Vedic age, it was held, that the husband and wife should be the joint owners of the household and its property. (13) An inscription in the reign of Parantaka Chola (916 CE) from Lalgudi, Trichi district, records the provisions of a perpetual lamp in the local temple, jointly by a cowherd and his wife, "Attuppalli Niyamattu Manrati Vatukan Kariyum avan illamutaiyal Uran Vempiyum ivviruvom". (14) These examples would go to prove the equal importance given to women with their husbands. Respect for Women Rajaraja I,the greatest among the Chola Emperors, has shown in his records, a remarkable sense of responsibility and affection towards women. He gives first place to his sister Kundavai, and then to his queens, before mentioning other donors like commanders in the great temple of Tanjore. His order reads, "Cause the gifts made by us, our sister, our queens, and others, recorded on stone walls in the temple erected by us dedicated to Lord Rajarajesvara, at Tanjore". "Tancavur nam etuppitta tirukkarrali, Sri Raja Rajesvarman utaiyarkku nam Kuduttanavum, nam akkan Kuduttanavum, nam Pendukal Kuduttanavum marrum kuduttar kuduttanavum kallile vettuka" (15) Rajaraja's, magnanimity may be illustrated by many epigraphs, but one needs mention in this connection. It was necessary to endow forty eight cows as capital for providing one perpetual lamp. In one instance, Rajaraja gave forty two cows and allowed six cows to be gifted by a woman, Varaguna, a servant maid of Uyyakkondan Tirumancana Velam (an establishment) and make a total of 48, to endow for the perpetual lamp. It is an illustrious example of one of the greatest Emperors, to join a servant maid to endow a lamp. It is obviously an honour conferred on a servant maid. (16) Right to Sign Deeds Inscriptions are legal documents of the age. The legality required the donors themselves to sign the documents, or in the event of the donor being illiterate, through their guardians or witnesses. This fact, whether the document was signed by the donor, or a guardian, or witness, is specifically mentioned at the end of the inscription, which are of great value to historians. In several instances, women donors are seen affixing their own signatures. In the reign of Parantaka Chola (918 CE) a woman, Aditta Pitari gifted ten pon for a perpetual lamp, and signed the document herself "Tiruccorrutturai Mahadevarkku, oru nonda-vilakku erikka ayiratali paraman adittapitariyen. (17) Another inscription of Parantaka (910 CE) records a gift by lady Arinjikai Keni, of 20 kalanju gold and gifted one cey land. The record is attested by the same lady as Arinjikaik-keniyen. (18) Two Brahmin ladies are seen participating in a transaction and attesting the records themselves, in 13th cent., under the Pandya ruler, Srivallabha. The record reads "Devar Pandaratte celvataka kallil vettuviccom turppil Sridharabattan biramani Bhumi Nangaic-caniyum, Sridevi-nangaic-janiyum ivviruvom." (19) Right to issue Orders Mention has been made earlier of the Pallava queen Carudevi, making a land gift in the 4th Cent.CE. The point of interest is that the order was issued by the queen. Usually the copper plate charters are issued by the ruling king. In this instance, the order was not only issued by the queen, "ammahe sambadatta", but also the copper plate is issued in her name, indicating that queens had independent powers vested in them to issue royal charters. A most striking example is provided by Rajaraja's queen, Lokamakatevi.When Rajaraja was erecting his great temple at Tanjore, this queen was building a temple at Tiruvaiyaru, about 18 K.M. from Tanjore. This temple was named after her as Lokamahadevisvaram, where her inscriptions are found, one of which states that the order was issued by the queen herself and worded exactly as the order issued by Rajaraja at Tanjore and reads that "cause the gifts made by us (Lokamadevi), of jewels, etc, made for the metal images Lokavitankateva, and Lord Lokamadevisvaram Udaiyar, the presiding deity of the temple, erected by us Lokamadevi, the queen of Rajarajadeva. "Rajarajadevar Nampirattiyar Lokamadeviyar Tiruvaiyarruppal Nam eduppitta Lokamadevisvaram Udaiyarkkum Lokavitankadevarkkum Tiruvabaranankalum Tirupparikalankalum, kallile vettuka enru aruli Ceyya". (20) A few years earlier to this record it is seen that one Akkayidevi, the daughter of Kannaradeva is mentioned as a ruler of Ciyamankalam village. "Kannaradevan makal Akkayidevi ivvur ala nirka".(21) Queen's Right An important place is given to the queens,from the reign of Virarajendrachola I, (middle of 11th Cent.CE) in the prasasti part of the records that describes the exploits of the kings and their achievements. The inscriptions refer to the king invariably being seated on the throne with his queen "Tiribuvana mulutudaiyalodum virasimmasanattu virriuntaruliya" is the phrase. From the time of Chola Kulottunga I (1070 to 1125 CE) the records make specific mention of the fact that the queen is administering the country concurrently with the ruler "Utan anai tani natattum urimai Tiyakavalli". A further advancement of the queen's status is seen in the recores of the successors to Kulottunga I. All inscriptions of Rajaraja Cola II, state that the queen exercised independent authority as an emperor, and crowned herself as the She-king, and assumed concurrent kingship powers,by right to issue orders, and protected the established law of the land. "Peraracu taninatatti Pennaracay muti cuti, udan anaiyum utan irukkaiyum utan aracum katan akave padaittaruli, aram purakkum karunaivalli". It is important to note that by virtue of the coronation, the queen automatically assumes with her husband, important and equal powers namely a) issuing of royal orders b) sharing the throne and c) the kingship. Obviously it invested the queen with not only equal secular powers but also religious powers. It is the kings prerogative to maintain the law-dharma. The queen also is said to maintain dharma"aram purakkum". In the beginning of 13th Cent.the queen not only shared the powers with the king, under Rajaraja III, but also assumed independent powers "tani anai utan anai perru". From the middle of 13th Cent. A. D., the Pandyas took over rule from the Cholas, who also repeated the same powers of the queens as mentioned in Chola records. Towards the end of 14th Cent. A. D. the Vijayanagar rule was established but their prasasti has nothing to say about the queens of their powers. However it is during the end of their rule in the closing years of 17th and beginning of 18th Cent.two queens, Queen Mangammal and Queen Meenakshi, ruled as independent sovereigns, from Madurai. Women Officers Inscriptions also show that women held posts of senior officers in the administrative set up of the Government and are seen supervising and issuing orders to male officers under them. When Lokamahadevi, the chief queen of Rajaraja Cola I, gifted wealth and jewel to the temple erected by her at Tiruvaiyaru, she ordered two of her senior officers to supervise the endowment; one was a woman-officer, whose name is given as Erutan Kuncaramalli, designated as Atikaricci, a feminine gender in Tamil for Adhikari. The other male-officer is described as Adhikaram Ceykinra. The record reads Lokamadeviyar Tiruvabharanankalum Tirupparikalankalum kallile vettuvikka enru Udankuttattu atikaram ceykinra Kovalur-udaiyan Kadan Nurrenmanaiyum, adikarici Erutan Kuncara-malliyaiyum arulicceyya Kallil vettinapati". This shows that both were high officials under the queen, "Utankuttam", who were jointly responsible for the execution, and that both men and women officers had equal powers. One year later Muttana Ponnangai, another woman officer of queen Trailoka mulututaiyal (a queen of Rajendra Cola I) is seen gifting a jewel to the bronze of image of Nataraja of Ten Kailayam in Tiruvaiyaru. She is also mentioned as Adhikaricci of the queen. (22) Forty years later, a third woman officer is seen in the same temple, supervising an endowment along with a senior officer. She is also mentioned as Adikaricci: "Ulokamadevisvaram Udaiyarkku Anuttarap-pallavaraiyanum Atikaricci Comayyan Amitravalliyum". (23) Thus these records do show that though men dominated Government service under the Cholas, women did serve as senior officers and weilded equal powers with men. Own Secretariat It is seen that women could own estates and have officers under them, and even separate secretariat. A 11th Cent. inscription from Kandiyur, Tanjore district, attests to such a right. Kundavai, the sister of Rajaraja Cola I, purchased a land and made a gift of it to the local temple. As many as four senior officers, working under her, obviously in her secretariant are mentioned in the deed. Two of them were senior officers "adikaram ceykinra", one an accountant "Kanakkar" and the other a "Karanattan", executive. The senior officer Tennavan, Eriyurnattu Velan, drafted the deed; another senior officer Ankati Curri, signed the document; the accountant Varagunan, and the executive Mayilatti Accan, signed as witnesses. The record reads: Ippidipadu arulicceyya elutinen ivarkku adikaran Ceykinra Ciruperutaiyan Tennavan Eriyur nattu Velan. ariven ippirattiyarkku adikaranceykinra Naruman kilan Ankati Curriyen. Ippati kuduttamai ariven ippirattiyarkku Kanakku puvaludaiyan varagunan. Ippati kudtuttamai ariven Alvar Karanattan Marutankudaiyan Mayilattayen.(24) Two senior officials, one accountant and one executive writer, serving under this princess, would show a regular secretariat establishment to look after her movable and immovable properties. The last part of the inscription is still interesting. Kundavai herself affixes her signature, making the gift "Iddevarkku urittaka kudutten parantakan kundavaiyen". Mention has been made earlier, that women belonging to various social groups have signed their gift deeds. It is seen from this record women of the Royal family also signed their documents. Participate in Auction An interesting record of 10th cent indicates the participatiion of a queen in public auction and purchasing a land for making a gift. A call was given as "Is there none to bid for this land", the queen Parantakan devi, a daughter of king Ceraman, and the queen of Ponmalikait-tunciya deva, replied that she would buy it. "in nilam mukkale nalu ma(v) araiyum kolvarilaiyo enru murkura im moli kettu Ponmalikai tunciyadevar deviyar, Ceramanar makalar Parantakan deviyanar, vilaikkuk kolven enru pirkura". (25) There are three points of interest that stand out from this inscription. 1) The queen was present at the auction and purcahsed the land. 2) The second is that when the transaction took place, her husband was no more, as the inscription specifically states that she is the queen of Ponmalikai Tunciya tevar i. e; who died at Ponmalikai and 3) Though she was a widowed queen, she did not commit sati but lived after the death of her husband and that she purchased the land by appearing in public. Right of Inheritance Inscriptions also throw light on the right of inheritance of women. A 12th cent. record of Rajadhiraja II, states that a married woman should on the death of her husband become the owner of his lands, jewels, servants, cattle and other valuables of her diseased husband. (26) A 13th Cent., inscription confirms the same. A certain Damodara Bhatta, had to pay tax on certain lands, but he died without paying the same. The tax and the interest remained in arrears for two years. His widowed wife and their son were asked to clear the same. They pleaded their inability and requested that one of their lands could be accepted in lieu of the same. The land was sold for 8000 kacu which was the due, with her brother-in-law ( brother of the deseased husband)acting as guardian for the sale. A few points of interest may be noticed in this case. The widow and her son inherited not only the properties but also the dues. The deseased husband's brother, acted as the guardian for the sale probably because the son was a minor(27). Another inscription of the same period shows that two major sons with their widowed mother inherited the landed property and also the dues, on the death of their father. No one came forward to stand surety to pay off their dues. So they promised to repay the debts, by raising loans but they were able to pay only a part of the loan. Being unable to pay the rest, they deserted the village. The village assembly sold some of their lands and made good the loan. The point of interest is that not only the sons, but also their widowed mother (the wife of the deceased) inherited the property. (28) Another inscription of 13th Cent. A. D. coming from Omam-puliyur, shows, that the father of a lady acted as the guardian for sale. A land belonging to a Brahmin lady Alappirantal Sani, wife of a certain Palacirayan, was sold. in this case the father of the lady Karunakara Nampi, acted as the guardian for sale. As her husband's name does not figure among signataries, he was obviously dead. Among the witnesses the name of her brother-in-law appear, but the lady has preferred to have her own father as the guardian. Normally in such cases, we may expect the property to be Stridhana, in which case it would be specifically mentioned in the record. As the land is not referred to as a Stridhana, we may surmise, that women had the liberty to chose her own father in preference to the family members of her husband, to act on her behalf, in transactions of property.(29) Widow's Right There are records which show that, on the death of the head of the family, the properties devolved on not only the widow of the deseased, and the sons but also on all the daughters-in-law. Professor Altekar has drawn our attention to the fact, that as early as the Vedic age, husband and wife should be the joint owners of the house-hold and its property. (30) Altekar also points out that the Upanisadic sage Yajnavalkya had divided all his property between his two wives, when he had renounced the world. Yajnavalkya is considered a Southerner. The proposal of Visnu and Yajnavalkya to recognise the widow as a heir was a sensational one.(31) The illustrations cited above would show, that the right of women to inherit property was a long accepted legal status. Slavery Even among servants, the position of wome is worth mentioning. Along with women, men are also mentioned and what is more, the women servants are mentioned prominently in some records. A 13th Cent. record from Tirumeyyam in Pudukkottai region is an example. A certain Munaiyadaraiyan gave Kani atci right to his son Cirala devan, which included gift of house sites and servants. Two groups of servants are mentioned in the record. (32) The caste of the first group is not mentioned, but consisted of eight persons, which includes women and men, but the inscription listing them, refers to a woman Devi and all the rest as her relatives. The tenor of the record shows that this woman occupied an important place in the group. The order in which the slaves are mentioned is as follows: 1. Devi 2. her daughter Ciral 3. her brother Makkal Nayan 4. her step-mother Avudaiyal 5. her brother Ciraladevan 6. her daughter-in-law Ciral 7. Tirumeyya Malaiyalan and 8. Civatta Makkanayan The second group consisted of slaves belonging to the Pallatiyar caste. It also includes both men and women some of whom were related to each other. There doesn't seem to have existed any difference in slavery. An inscription from Kancipuram Varadarajap perumal temple dated 1365 CE is of great interest in this regard. It refers to a temple servant, husking paddy-(nerkuru taci)- named Mutaliyar Nacci sold her land to one Ayyanankal. In the record, the daci, is seen participating herself in the transaction and signing the deed. It indicates that such servants had not only right to own property but also to dispose it of according to their discretion and literate enough to sign the documents.(33) Equality In the matter of taxation, equality is noticed between men and women in an inscription. Certain soldiers, and merchants, residing in some quarters of Nellore, agreed to pay during marriages, one cinnam (coin). Both the parties belonging to the bride and bride-groom have to pay the said amount. (34) It is also seen that men studied under female teachers and females under men. One lady Nalkur Kuratti is mentioned as a student of (Manakkiyar) Amala Nemi Bhatara. A certain male, Enadi Kuttan studies (Manakkan) under a lady Tirumalai Kuratati.(35) Another record states that a certain Tuvarapati Makamuni and his lady disciple Periyapiratti jointly invested their properties and were maintaining themselves in a Mutt. It was stipulated that after the Makamuni, obviously an ascetic-the lady Periyapiratti will enjoy the proceeds. Provision was also made for a maid servant "immatattukku paricarikaiyay potukira Vellattikkum Jivanattukkum."(36) That man had no right to illtreat his wife and in the event of her death due to illtreatment he was liable for punishment, is brought out by a record of 12th Cent. A certain Palli Minan, Villiyan illtreated his wife Palli Iraman Tiruvi. Cataiyan,the brother of the lady, and the territorial assembly met and punished the husband. (37) While the above discussions, based on epigraphical records, bring out the rights of women in the historical period, we have not come across women serving as elected members of the village assemblies. Nor are they seen acting as Judges. Their voice should have been heard only indirectly. However, the position of women, as gleaned from the epigraphs, was far more better, particularly in the eye of the law, and the picture that emerges is sufficient enough, tio call for a revision of our views. NOTES 1. I. Mahadevan, Corpus of the Tamil Brahmi inscriptions, Seminar on Inscription, (Ed) R. Nagaswamy, Madras, 1968. 2. South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. 14 - No. 3 3. Sll, 12/74. 4. Sll, 12/91. 5. Sll, 5/583. 6. Sll, 19/74. 7. Sll, 19/235. 8. Sll, 19/10. 9. Sll, 13/283. 10. Sll, 10/131. 11. Sll, 14/34. 12. Sll, 5/693. 13. A. S. Altekar, The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization, reprint 1937, Delhi, p. 214. 14. Sll, 19/271. 15. Sll, 2/1. 16. Sll, 2/64,95. 17. Sll, 19/34. 18. Sll, 19/55. 19. Sll, 5/298. 20. Sll, 5/521. 21. Sll, 8/75. 22. Sll, 5/512. 23. Sll, 5/520. 24. Sll, 5/1409. 25. Sll, 5/723. 26. Annual Report on Epigraphy for the year 1919-20. 27. Sll, 12/199. 28. Sll, 12/224. 29. Sll, 12/184. 30. A. S. Altekar, Op. Cit., p. 214. 31. Ibid, p. 253. 32. Pudukkottai Inscriptions 459. 33. Dr. R. Nagaswamy, Right of women slaves to own property, New Dimensions in Tamil Studies, Madras, 1978, pp. 13-17. 34. Sll, 5/492. 35. Sll, 5/370. 36. Sll, 6/59. 37. Sll, 8/241.