Nagaswamy R images/img_2265-001.jpg intro Introduction images/img_2362.jpg May Śiva be permanently present in this temple, Rājasimhesvara, built of stone, which rises as if reaching the clouds, which surpasses Kailāsa in its beauty and which was built by Rājasimha, the righteous king of kings, who forced all quarters to obey his commands and who proved a king-lion to the elephants of his opponents. He [Rājasimha] erected this extensive [atimanam] and wonderful[atyadbuta] house of Hara which resembles his fame and the laughter of Śiva. Kailāsatha inscription of Rājasimha¹ Within a few years of the construction of the Kailāsanatha temple at Kāñcīpuram, the Chalukya ruler Vikramaditya II vowed to pulverize the city of Kāñcīpuram to avenge the destuction of his own ancestral capital Vātāpi at the hands of previous Pallava rulers. Yet, on seeing the glory of the Rājasimhesvara temple (popularly known as Kailāsanātha), he was so filled with admiration that he refrained from damaging it. The mighty conqueror was conquered by this edifice. So magnificient was the temple that in the eleventh century, the Cholā emperor Rājarāja, builder of the Great Temple at Tanjore, refered to the Kailāsanātha as the "great stone temple of Kāñci" (kacippeṭṭu periya tirukkaṛṛaḷi). ² The foundation inscription on the base of Kailāsanātha temple, from which two verses are quoted above, specifies that it was built by Rājasimha as a true reflection of his personality and as a monument suited to his fame (yasas sadṛsam bhavanam etad uttāpitam); it is this aspect of the temple that we shall explore in this essay. The Kailāsanātha temple has serveral other inscriptions too, most important being the over two hundered and fifty titles of Rājasimha inscribed on the rows of small cells running along the enclosure wall.³ These titles in the four ornate varieties of script, reveal his valor, prowess, religious beliefs, and his interest in art, music and literature. They help us to understand better the ruler responsible for the erection of this great temple. Several other epigraphs are to be found in the Kailāsanātha complex. A small rectangular temple at the entrance has its own foundation inscription recording that it was erected by Rājasimhā's son Mahendra;⁴ the tenor of the epigraph indicates that Rājasimha was alive when his son built the shrine. Beyond the entrance to the Kailāsanātha temple are eight little shrines, two of which carry inscriptions informing us that they were built by the queens of Rājasimha, while a third is named Nityāvinītesvaram after one of the titles of the emperor.⁵ Several of Pallava monarchs were poets. We know for instance, that the ruler Aparājitā composed the inscription in verse at Tiruttani, and that the great Mahendravarman, who wrote the Sanskrit farce Mattavilāsa prahasanam, was an accomplished poet who probably composed the verses of his Trichy cave inscription. One of Rājasimha's titles, Kāvya-prabodha, indicates his love for literature, and we would suggest that all the Kailāsanātha inscriptions, both verses and titles, were composed by the ruler himself; they should thus be considered as revealing his thoughts. images/DSCN0215.jpg Rājasimha's foundation inscription on the Kailāsanātha temple is dedicated to Śiva as the bearer of the Ganges. May the river Ganga who springs from the head of Śiva and who assumes various colors as she descends from his head by reflecting the colors found on the neck of Śiva and also on the hoods of the snakes he wore, fill the lake of the three worlds, and may that river, auspicious Ganga purify you The inscription speaks in glowing terms of the ahcievements of the Pallava rulers, tracing their history and speaking of their greatness. The next verse refers to the birth of Rājasimha from King Paramesvara and likens it to the birth of God Kumāra or Guha from Paramesvara Śiva. The verse contains a double-entendre (subrahmanya, kumāra, guha iva paramāt iśvarāt ātmajanmā). Rājasimha's Personality as Revealed in the Kailāsanātha Titles Rājasimha's inscribed titles proclaim him to be a man of great personal charm and beauty. He is "One of unrivaled beauty" (eka sundara), while various other titles compare him to the rising moon, the season of spring, and speak of his graceful gait and his sweet temperament (udaya-chandra, udaya-vasanta, jati-gambhīra, cāru-vilāsa). Rājasimha is one of noble qualities (guṇa-vinīta, guṇalaya, guṇonnata,). He was proud as a bull (ṛṣabha-dharbha), and one whoes anger could not be easily subdued (asahya-kopa, avandhya-kopa). Yet he rose to anger only when there was a cause for it (kārṇa-kopa). He was an ocean of bravery (dhirya-sāgara) who was never afraid of anything (alkuta-bhaya,bhaya-rahita). He assumed several titles that speak of his valor and might in war (atiraṇa-caṇda, raṇa-jaya, satru-malla, mahā-malla, nara-simha, kṣatriya-simha, ahava-bhīma, raṇa-vikrama) Rājasimha's love and care of his subjects and his compassion towards the weak is reflected in such titles as daridrāni-kampi, khinnānu-kampi, arttayana. To eradicate poverty from his kingdom, he emptied his treasury by making liberal gift to the poor (dana-varsha, aviratha-dana, bahu-dana). His mastery of politics is reflected in titles like desa-vardhana meaning "One engaged in the improvement of his nation". His use of spies, an important limb of ancient kingship, is seen in his title cara-cakshu. His main concern however, was rightful rule and the maintenance of dharma, and this is reflected in his titles dharma-vijayi, dharma-sethu, adharma-bhiru. He was also dūra-darsi, a farsighted ruler. He was a monarch noted for his upright conduct and personal accomplishments adbhuta-carita, punya-sloka, udāra-kīrti, udita-kīrti). His life was one long shining example like that of Manu, the much revered ancestor of the Hindus (manu-carita). He soon attained the distinction of being considered the crest jewel of the ancient and famous city of Kāñci; Rājasimha probably lavished wealth in beautifying the city and earned the title kāñci mahā maṇi. Rājasimha called himself "King of Kings" or rājarāja and emperor (cakra-vartin and sarva-bhauma). images/kailas099.jpg Apparently an accomplished musician, Rājasimha compared himself to the great musical sages Nārada and Tumburu (vīṇa-nārada, atodya-tumburu). He was an eminent poet and patron of letters (kāvya-prabodha). His love for the arts was not confined to music and literature, but permeated the fields of architecture, sculpture and painting. His intimate understanding and mastery of the arts earned him the title "Ocean of arts" or kalā-samudra. Rājasimha's happy temperament is reflected in his titles utsāha-nitya and nityotsāha. He had an inherent love for novelty and experimented always on new forms. His passion for new thoughts, forms and methods is echoed in his titles anekakopāya and upāya-nipuṇa. He aspired to the height of perfection and aimed at striking wonder into the minds of the spectator (atyadbhuta). One of his most significant titles atyantakāma or "One of endless desires or fancies" focuses upon his inner longings. It is the same longing from which he derived supreme pleasure in the very of act of commanding and ordering (ajnarasa). Though he had unlimited fancies, his desire were fulfilled (iccha-pūra, trishnā-pūra, āshā-pūra, uṇṇatecha). Evidence that Rājasimha was impressed and influenced by his illustrious ancestor Mahendravarman, is seen in his assumption of titles similar to those of Mahendra. Mahendra's mahendra-vikrama became Rājasimha's mahendra-parākrama; mattavilāsa was transformed into cāru-vilāsa; while Mahendra's lalitānkura became Rājasimha's lalita-vilāsa. Rājasimha's piety and devotion to Lord Śiva was the propelling feature of his life. His Reyur copperplate grant gives him the significant titles of parama-māheśvara, param-brahmaṇya, parama-bhāgavata or a great devotee of Śiva, Brahma and Viṣṇu⁶. Yet, he was essentially a devotee of Śiva and his inscirptions make particular mention of this (śankara-bhakta, īśvara-bhakta, īśāna-saraṇa). The foundation inscription states that Rājasimha had mastered various branches of the Saiva Siddhānta philosophy and was one whose impurities had been removed. Incidentally this is the earliest ephigraphical reference to the Saiva Siddhānta philosophy that was to pay a vital role in the succeeding religious history of Tamilnadu. It is also interesting to note that Rājasimha has been indentified with Kāḍavarkon Kaḻarciṅan, of the sixty-three Saiva saints of the Tamil country. Rājasimha derived inspiration from the religious texts known as the Sāstrās (sastra-dṛshṭi). and had a great fascination for the epics (itihāsa-priya). By constant study of the Sāstrās, he made his intellect the goad (jñana-aṅkusa). divested himself of distractions (cala-rahita), wiped-out his doubts (chinna-samsaya) and made himself spotlessly pure (kāma-varjita). By treading the pure and sacred path (achara-para), he realized the nature of truth (tattva-vedi). The religious texts known as the Āgamās were his special guide (āgama-pramāṇa) and he never swered from their injuncitons (āgamān-anusani). ​ The Rājasimheśvara Temple The Rājasimhesvara temple complex consists of a main shrine with a detached hall, oriented east-west, and enclosed within a rectangular courtyard wall. Immediately within the courtyard is another small temple, rectangular in shape, built by Rājasimha's son Mahendra, and beyond this is an entrance gateway, a gopura of modest proportions. Beyond the gateway stand eight miniature shirnes, at least two of which were erected by the queens of Rājasimha. A considerable distance in fornt of the temple is a pavilion with Śiva's bull seated within it, facing his Lord. The main shrine; built of sandstone except for two levels of the base where granite is used for added strength, is enclosed by a plain inner wall. A circumambulatory path is provided by adding an outer wall which is embellished with fine sculptures. In the center of the sanctum is the majestic prismatic liṅga rising to a height of 7 feet, and made of highly polished basalt. On the rear wall of the sanctum, well above the liṅga, is an image of Śiva and Pārvati with their infant son Skanda (Somāskanda) within a plain niche. Both the formless Śiva (as th liṅga) and the manifest Śiva (Somāskanda) are part of the original plan of the shrine. Seven sub-shrines were attached to the outer walls of the sanctum. The three sub-shrines at the rear face west while the other four face east and all contain sculputed images of Śiva that occupy the entire wall space from the ceiling to floor and measure about 9 foot in height. The gigantic proportions create a sense of great awe and inspiration that was rarely surpassed later in either magnitude or elegance. The two shrines flanking the entrance to the sanctum contain sculptures of dancing Śiva. With one knee on the gound and the other bent, many-armed Śiva dances the mahā tāṇḍava, with one main arm raised above his head and the other sweeping across his body. To Śiva's left is Pārvati witnessing the dance, while to the right, gods adore the mighty dancer. The two sub-shrines to the the north and south carry Somāskanda sculputures. The sub-shrine to the south-west glorifies the Enchanting Medndicant Śiva surrounded by the enamored wives of the rishis; Śiva receiving the river Ganges is seen in the sub-shrine at the rear of the sanctum; while Śiva as Tripurāntaka, the from in which he destoyed the forts of the three demons, occupies the shrine in the north-west. Flanking the entrance to the sanctum, between the sub-shrine and the doorway are the images of Śiva dancing with his foot raised vertically upards in the ūrdva-tāṇḍava pose. The outer walls of the sanctum carry the entire range of Saiva scenes including several forms of dancing Śiva, HariHara, Śiva manifesting in liṅga and Śiva as the great teacher, to mention just a few. The main hall of the Kailāsanātha originally stood separate from the sanctum, but they were connected by a additoin of the late sixteenth century. While the front of the hall has images of doorkeepers, the south portrays the goddesses Lakshmi and Sarasvati, while the north glorifies Durga and Jyeshta. The presence of Devi sculputures in the main hall is of significance since the Āgamās describe the hall as the embodiment of the feminine force sakti, and the shrine as male energy or purusha. The Sculptural Program of the Courtyard The enclosing wall of the Kailāsanātha temple consists of a series of small cells built up against each other. The cells along the eastern wall face west, while those along the western, southern and northern all open to the east. The cells along the eastern and western walls carry sculpted Somāskanda pannels within the cells. The cells of the northern and southern sides are constructed to contain, in addition to an interior, a shallow niche on the outer facade, and they are thus able to accommodate two sets of images. These outer niches display three different groups of sculpted deities - the parivara deities, certain ascpects of Viṣṇu, and the destructive (samhāra) and benign (anugraha) aspects of Śiva. The interior of these cells contain no sculptures; instead the inner walls are painted with varying depictions of Śiva. Two shirnes along the courtyard wall on the northern and southern sides, are larger than the rest and rectangular in shape with a barrel-vaulted roof, thus resembling the entrance gateway. They are located on either side of the main shrine, in alignment with the center of the sanctum. The one on the south contains an image of Brahma, while that to the north houses an image of Viṣṇu. Thus, in addition to the main deity Śiva, special importance is given to other two members of the Trinity, Brahma and Viṣṇu. A study of the distribution of the sculptures in the cells of the courtyard wall clearly indicates that remarkable planning went into the layout of this temple. The distibution of images in the courtyard may be studied under the following categories: 1) parivāra deities, 2) forms of Viṣṇu, 3) samhāra and anugraha forms of Śiva, 4) vāstu pada deities and 5) forms of Uma. The following twelve parivāra deities are found along the northern and southern walls of the courtyard: 1) Ganapati, 2) Subrahmaṇya, 3) Durga, 4) Viṣṇu, 5) Brahma, 6) Jyeshta, 7) the sapta mātrikās, 8) Agastya, 9) Bhairavi, 10) the eleven Rudra, 11) Chandi and 12) Nandi. Several interesting points may be made regarding the distibution of these deities. None appears on the eastern or western walls; most of the parivāra deities are accomodated in the southern wall; and finally, as the devotee circumbulates the temple, these deities appear in the order given above, which is the sequence of the texts. images/IMG_2316.jpg Five forms of Viṣṇu appear in five consecutive cells (numbers six to 10) of the southern wall. They are a standing Viṣṇu, Viṣṇu seated on Garuda, and three incarnations, Narasimha fighting Hiranyakasipu, Viṣṇu as Trivikrama and Viṣṇu in his tortoise incarnation. This continuous represention of Viṣṇu shows that the god played an important part in Rājasimha's Saiva cult. It is interesting to find that all the desructive forms of Śiva are located in the southern wall, while the benign aspects are placed in the cells of the northern wall. images/DSCN0184.jpg Special mention must be made of the portrayal of the Goddess Uma who is depicted eighteen times on the north and south walls of the courtyard. She is invariably shown as a young maiden seated on the peak of a mountain under a divine tree. One is reminded of the Lalitha Sahasranāma which tells us that Devi resides on the peak of the Sumeru mountain,⁷ and of the Syamalā Dandaka, another poem on Devi, which describes her as seated under the wish-fulling kalpa tree in the midst of the vilva forest.⁸ Among the portayals are two of Devi playing on the vīnā and yāḻ. The association of Devi with music is, ofcourse, a well known concept. The Lalitha Sahasranāma extols her as the very embodiment of music,⁹ while the Syamalā Dandaka speaks of her as playing vīnā of precious gems.¹⁰ The navaratna-mālika, another Devi poem, speaks of Uma resting the vīnā upon her left breast,¹¹ and the portrayal of vīnā-playing Devi in the Kailāsanātha temple is indicative of the popularity of the theme as early as the eighth century. The courtyard walls of the Kailāsanātha temple further portray thirty-two male figures, most of them accompanied by their consorts. I have identified these figures with the thirty-two pada-devatās mentioned in Vāstu texts, a group that includes the eight dircctional deities, the dikpālās. The occurence of this pada-devatā group at the Kailāsanātha is unique; it is the earliest representation of these deities in sculptural form. It is clearly indicates that the concept of vāstu-pada-devatās and vāstu-puruṣa-mandala had been fully evolved by the eighth century. The emperor Rājasimha appears to have commanded that the temple be laid out according to the paramasayi-pada, or in other words, as suited for worship on behalf of the temporal power as his perosnal chapel. And indeed, as he says in his inscription, he built the temple suited to his fame and as a refelction of his personality (yasas sadrasam ātmana bhavanam etad uttāpitam). It would appear that the rectangular temple with a barrel-vaulted roof built by Mahendra at the eastern end of the courtyard, contains a sculpted protrait of the great emperor. The sanctum contains central liṅga and a Somāskanda panel against its back wall, while the river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna flank the entrance. The interior of the south wall of the hall carries a full size image of Śiva as the Enchanting Mendicant accompanied by the wives of the rishis, while the north wall has a depiction of dancing Śiva. On the exterior Śiva as the Great Teacher is seen on the south, while Śiva in yogic pose decorates the northern wall. The entire rear wall of the hall of Mahendra's temple is occupied by a royal couple, and it is tempting to identify the figures as Rājasimha with his chief queen, positioned so as to gaze forever upon his maginficent creation, the Kailāsanātha temple. In addition to the spectacular sculptures, the entire Kailāsanātha was originally painted from base to top. The ugly coat of lime mortor that was added to the temple walls in the nineteenth century is being removed to expose Pallava paintings. A remarkable portrayal of of Somāskanda has been brought to light in a southern cell of the courtyard wall. while Dakshināmūrti Śiva and Brahma have been exposed in cells along the western wall. The Pallava artist used green and red and yellow ochre, with an occasional touch of blue. Lines are usally drawn in black. The lines are with a firm, dexterous hand and the colors are filled in later. The technique is that of fresco in which paint is laid on a wet surface. A rough layer of lime plaster was overlaid with a thin coat of plaster which was then covered with a superfine coat of lime. Correlation between Rājasimha's Titles and His Creations The sculputres of the Kailāsanātha temple, after removal of the crude layer of plaster, are beginning to reveal their original fine character. They stand out as marvelous creations, with an eye of sensitive groupings, flowing lines, and an emphasis on the depiction fo various emotions like love, valor, ferocity, laughter (sriṅgāra, vīra, raudra, hāsya) extolled in treatieses on the arts. It would appear, in addtion, that the sculptures seek to bring out the inner meaning of the various aspirations of their patron, emperor Rājasimha, that are so meticulously mentioned by him in his various titles and other epigraphs. This new look is an essential one and a few correlations between the king's thoughts and his sculptural creations are examined here. The vigorous dance of Śiva known as samhāra-tāndava, a favorite theme with Rājasimha, is portrayed in an outstanding manner. Śiva dances with his arms moving powerfully around him; the upward force of the danace movement with bent knees seems to make the image take off upwards with a gaint rythmic leap. It infuses a sense of wonder in the viewer which reminds us of Rājasimha's description of the temple as attyadbhuta or "that which inspires wonder". The number of Purānic episodes depicted, with a narrative emphasis, is so great that they remind us of the monarch called himself lover of history (itihāsa-priya). His titles āgamānusāri and āgama-pramāṇa, or one who follows the injunctions of the Āgamic texts, assume special meaning when we consider the sculptural scheme of the temple and the distribution of vāstu-pada deities and parivāra deities and other details that conform to the textual prescriptions. The little dwarf ganās at the base of the shrine, shown in joyous ecstasy as if at the thought bearing the mighty lord above their heads, are reflected in Rājsaimha's titles nityotsāha and utsāha-nitya, "One who is always happy". The panel depicting the hunter (kirāṭa) fighting the hero Arjuna is an outstanding portrayal of combat. Rājasimha likened himself to Arjuna, assuming the titles yuddhārjuna and samhāra-dhananjaya, both titles meaing "Arjuna in battle"; it would seem that Rājasimha portrayed himself in the figure of Arjuna. images/DSCF0003.jpg At the southwest corner of the shirne wall is an elegant sculpture of Śiva as Enchanting Mendicant with a captivating smile upon his lips. Besides the Lord are the wives of the rishis enchanted by the bewitching beauty of Śiva. The sculputre is a remarkable creation in itself. However, we may also view it in the context of the titles of Rājasimha in which he proclaims his own beauty (nayana-manohara or Kāma-Lalita). Rājasimha even proclaimed that he charmed refined women as did Manmatha, god of love (kalācatura yoshitam rahsi ranjane manmatha)¹². Against the back wall of the shirne is a portrayal of Śiva holding the vīnā; we are reminded of Rājasimha's mastery over that instrument referred to in his titles vīna-nārada, vadya-vidyādhara and atodya-tumburu. Rightly did his son Mahendra exclaim that in the Kailāsanātha temple at Kāñcīpuram, Rājasimha created upon this earth another Krita-yuga, an age of utopian gloary (kritayugam aparam nirmano).¹³ The Kailāsanātha is so to be viewed then, not just as a royal temple, but as reflecting in a very special manner the personality, aspirations and ambitions of its innovative royal patron Rājasimha. yaṁ rājā rājasiṁha stanayam ajanayan medinī vīrasimho vṛttairaṁhonivṛttaiḥ kṛtayugam aparam nirmmimāṇo mahendram

1. 1. E. Hultzsch ed., South Indian Inscriptions, I, (Madras, 1890): inscription No. 24, pp.12-14.
2. 2. ibid: Inscription No. 146. ஸ்ரீ காந்தளூர்ச்சா[லை] கலமறுத்த கொவிராஜராஜகெஸ[ரி] பர்மர்க்கு யாண்டு பந்நிரண்டாவது . . . . . . . . . . . வாயில் ஸபயொம் கையழுத்து காஞ்சி[பு]ரத்துப்பெரிய திருக்கற்றளியாகிய ராஜஸி[ம்] ஹெஸ்வரத்து யாங்கள் கொண்டு [க]டவ பொந் துளை நிறை ய[ந்] கட்டளைக்கல்லால் முதல் முப்பதுமுக்கழஞ்சும் . . . . .
3. 2. ibid: Inscription No. 148. கொப்பரகெஸரிவர்மர்க்கு யாண்டு பதினைஞ்சாவது காலியூர்கொட்டத்து . . . . . . . . ர் ஊரொம் கைய்யைழுத்துக்கச்சிப்பெட்டுப்பெரிய திருக்க[ற்றளி*] . . . . . . . . யாங்கள் கொண்டு கடவ பொன் துளை பதினாறு கழஞ்[சு] . . . . .
4. 2. ibid: Inscription No. 150. ஸ்வஸ்தி ஸ்ரீ திரிபுவன [ச]க்ரவரவதிகள் ஸ்ரீ ராஜராஜதெவர்க்கு யாண்டு 26 வது அய்ப்பசி மாஸத்து கச்சிபெட்டு திருக்[க]ற்றளி ஆன ராஜஸிம்ஹப..ஸ்வரமுடய நாயநார்க்கு .....
5. 2. ibid: Inscription No. 82. ஸ்வஸ்தி ஸ்ரீ மதிரை கொண்ட கொப்பரகேஸரிபன்ம[க்]கு யாண்டு பதிந்அஞ்சாவது க[ச்சி]ப்பெட்டுபெரிய [திரு] கற்றளி மஹாதேவர்[கு] . . . . . . . . . . . . (பராந்தக சோழன்)
6. 3. ibid: Inscription No. 25.
7. 4. ibid: Inscription No. 27.
8. 5. ibid: Inscription No. 28.
9. 6. B. B. Desai, "Reyuru Copperplate", Epigraphia Indica, XXIX: 88-97.
10. 7. Lalitha Sahasranama: verse 22.
11. 8. Syamalā Daṇdaka: verse 5. vilvatavvi madhya kalpadrumakalpa kadamba kantara vasapriye
12. 9. Lalitha Sahasranama: verse 160.
13. 10. Syamalā Daṇdaka: verse 1. mānikka vīnām upalālayantīm
14. 11. Navaratna-mālikā stotram: verse 2.
15. 12. E. Hultzsch, op. cit.: Inscription No. 24, verse 6
16. 13. ibid: Inscription No. 27, verse 3.